Ch#11:#Prosocial#Behavior:#Why#do#People#Help?

BASIC&MOTIVES&UNDERLYING&PROSOCIAL&BEHAVIOR:&WHY&DO&PEOPLE&HELP?

• Prosocial#behavior – any#act#performed#with#the#goal#of#benefiting#another#person#

o Altruism – the#desire#to#help#another#person#even#if#it#involves#a#cost#to#the#helper

EVOLUTIONARY#PSYCHOLOGY:#INSTINCTS#AND#GENES

• Charles#Darwin’s#theory#of#evolution#has#been#used#to#explain#social#behaviors#in#terms#of#genetic#factors#that#have#evolved#

over#time#using#the#principles#of#natural#selection#

• Kin#selection – the#idea#that#behaviors#that#help#a#genetic#relative#are#favored#by#natural#selection#

o People#can#increase#the#chances#that#their#genes#will#be#passed#on#to#the#next#generation#by#having#children or#by#

ensuring#that#their#relatives#have#children#

o Thus,#natural#selection#should#favor#altruistic#acts#directed#toward#genetic#relatives#

o Study:#People#are#more#likely#to#help#relatives#in#lifeSandSdeath#situations,#but#not#nonSlifeSthreatening#situations#

o Kin#selection#may#have#become#ingrained#in#human#behavior#over#time

• Norm#of#reciprocity – the#expectation#that#helping#others#will#increase#the#likelihood#that#they#will#help#us#in#the#future#

o Some#researchers#suggest#that#that#the#emotion#of#gratitude#– the#positive#feelings#caused#by#perception#that#one#

has#been#helped#– evolved#in#order#to#regulate#reciprocity#

• Group#Selection:#Groups#who#have#selfless#individuals#who#put#their#lives at#risk#for#the#sake#of#the#group,#compared#to#

groups#with#selfish#individual#who#are#only#willing#to#help#themselves,#are#more#likely#to#survive

• This#is#not#the#only#reasons#for#prosocial#behavior!#

o People#are#not#necessarily#genetically#programmed#to#help#genetic#relatives

o People#also#help#strangers

SOCIAL#EXCHANGE:#THE#COSTS#AND#REWARDS#OF#HELPING

• Same#view#with#evolutionary#psychologists#that#altruistic#behavior#can#be#based#on#selfSinterest

• Social#exchange#theory – much#of#what#we#do#stems#from#the#desire#to#maximize#our#rewards#and#minimize#our#costs

o Helping#someone#increases#the#likelihood#that#they#will#help#us#in#the#future#when#we#need#it

o Helping#can#relieve#the#personal#distress#of#a#bystander

o By#helping#others,#we#can#gain#rewards#like#social#approval#from#others#and#increased#selfSworth

o Argues#that#altruism,#in#which#people#help#even#when#doing#so#is#costly#to#them,#does#not#exist

o In#general:#people#help#when#the#benefits#outweigh#the#costs

EMPATHY#AND#ALTRUISM:#THE#PURE#MOTIVE#FOR#HELPING

• Empathy – the#ability#to#put#oneself#in#the#shoes#of#another#person#and#to experience#events#and#emotions#(e.g.#joy#and#

sadness)#the#way#that#person#experiences#them

o When#pure#altruism#is#likely#to#come#in#to#play

• EmpathySaltruism#hypothesis – the#idea#that#when#we#feel#empathy#for#a#person,#we#will#attempt#to#help#that#person#for#

purely#altruistic#reasons,#regardless#of#what#we#have#to#gain#

o If#you#do#not#feel#empathy#and#have#nothing#to#gain#from#helping,#you#won’t#help

o Can#be#complex#to#know#if#someone#is#truly#altruistically#helping:#an#act#that#seems#truly#altruistic#is#sometimes#

motivated#by#selfSinterest#(think#of#Abe#Lincoln#saving#the#piglets#to#get#peace#of#mind)

• Study:#Under#what#conditions#did#people#agree#to#help#Carol,#who#just#got#into#an#accident,#with#the#work#she#missed#in#her#

psych#class?#(high#empathy#=#think#about#how#Carol#feels;#low#empathy#=#try#to#be#objective#as#possible)

o When#empathy#was#high:#people#helped#regardless#of#the#costs#and#rewards#(regardless#of#whether#they#would#

encounter#her#in#their#class#everyday)

o When#empathy#was#low:#people#were#more#concerned#with#the#rewards#and#costs#for#themselves#– they#helped#

only#if#they#would#encounter#Carol#in#their#psych#class#and#thus#feel#guilty#about#not#helping#

SUMMARY

• Three#basic#motives#underlying#prosocial#behavior:

o Evolutionary#psychology:#Helping#is#an#instinctive#reaction#to#promote#the#welfare#of#those#genetically#similar#to#us

o Social#exchange#theory:#The#rewards#of#helping#often#outweigh#the#costs,#so#helping#is#in#our#selfSinterest

o EmpathySaltruism#hypothesis:#Under#some#conditions,#powerful#feelings#of#empathy#and#compassion#for#the#victim#

prompts#selfless#giving

PERSONAL&QUALITIES&AND&PROSOCIAL&BEHAVIOR:&WHY&DO&SOME&PEOPLE&HELP&MORE&THAN&OTHERS?

INDIVIDUAL#DIFFERENCES:#THE#ALTRUISTIC#PERSONALITY

• Altruistic#personality#– the#qualities#that#cause#an#individual#to#help#others#in#a#wide#variety#of#situations#

o Personality#alone#does#not#determine#behavior,#situation#is#also#important

• Study:#People#with#high#scores#of#personality#tests#of#altruism#are#not#that#much#more#likely#to#help#than#those#with#lower#

scores

GENDER#DIFFERENCES#IN#PROSOCIAL#BEHAVIOR

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• Western#norms:

o Male:#role#includes#being#chivalrous#and#heroic

! More#Carnegie#Hero#Fund#Commission#medals:#more#likely#to#risk#their#lives#to#save#a#stranger

o Female:#expected#to#be#nurturing#and#caring,#and#to#value#close#and#longSterm#relationships

! More#likely#than#men#to#provide#social#support#to#their#friends#and#engage#in#volunteer#work#that#involves#

helping#others#

• Same#crossScultural#pattern#of#sex#differences#in#helping#behavior

CULTURAL#DIFFERENCES#IN#PROSOCIAL#BEHAVIOR

• People#often#favor#inSgroups – the#group#which#an#individual#identifies#as#a#member,#and#discriminate#against#outSgroups –

any#group#with#which#an#individual#does#not#identify

o But#some#people#go#out#of#their#way#to#help#outSgroups

• People#help#inSgroups#and#outSgroups#for#different#reasons:

o InSgroups:#feel#empathy

o OutSgroups:#help#if#there#is#something#in#it#for#us#(e.g.#making#ourselves#feel#good,#making#a#good#impression#on#

others)

o Supports#the#empathySaltruism#hypothesis

• Differences#in#cultural#values#that#make#people#in#one#culture#more#likely#to#help#others:

o SpanishSspeaking#countries:#simpatía – a#range#of#social#and#emotional#traits#including#being#friendly,#polite,#goodS

natured,#pleasant,#and#helpful#towards#others#

RELIGION#AND#PROSOCIAL#BEHAVIOR

• People#who#attend#religious#services#are#more#likely#to#selfSreport#that#they#give#more#money#to#charity#and#engage#in#more#

volunteer#work#compared#to#those#who#do#not

• Reality:

o Religious#people#are#more#likely#to#help#in#situations#in#which#helping#makes#them#look#good#to#others

o They#are#not#more#likely#to#help#in#private#situations#in#which#no#one#will#know#that#they#helped

o Do#not#appear#to#feel#more#empathy#towards#others,#though#they#are#more#likely#to#help#when#it#is#in#their#best#

interests

THE#EFFECTS#OF#MOOD#ON#PROSOCIAL#BEHAVIOR

Effects#of#Positive#Moods:#Feel#Good,#Do#Good

• Study:#People#who#found#money#in#the#telephone#booth#were#more#likely#to#help#the#man#who#dropped#his#folder#

compared#to#those#who#did#not

• The#“feel#good,#do#good”#effect#has#been#replicated#in#different#situations#and#with#different#helping#behaviors

• Being#in#a#good#mood#can#increase#helping#for#three#reasons:#

o Good#moods#make#us#look#on#the#bright#side#of#life

! When#we’re#in#a#good#mood,#we#tend#to#see#the#good#side#of#people#and#give#them#the#benefit#of#the#

doubt

o Helping#others#prolongs#our#good#mood

! Not#helping#when#we#know#we#should#is#a#“downer,”#deflating#our#mood#

o Good#moods#increase#the#amount#of#attention#we#pay#to#ourselves,#and#this#factor#in#turn#makes#us#more#likely#to#

behave#according#to#our#values#and#ideals#

! Most#of#us#value#altruism so#when#in#good#mood,#more#likely#to#help!

Feel#Bad,#Do#Good

• Feeling#guilty#increases#the#likelihood#of#helping

o When#people#have#done#something#to#make#them#feel#guilty,#helping#another#person#balances#things#out,#reducing#

their#guilty#feelings#

o Study:#Catholic#churchgoers#were#more#likely#to#donate#money#to#charities#before#confession#compared#to#after#

(talking#to#the#priest#already#reduced#your#guilt)

• When#people#are sad,#they#can#be#motivated#to#engage#in#activities#that#make#them#feel#better

SITUATIONAL&DETERMINANTS&OF&PROSOCIAL&BEHAVIOR:&WHEN&WILL&PEOPLE&HELP?

ENVIRONMENT:#RURAL#vs.#URBAN

• People#are#more#likely#to#help#in#small#towns#compared#to#urban#cities

• Urban#overload#hypothesis – the#theory#that#people#living#in#cities#are#constantly#bombarded#with#stimulation#and#that#they#

keep#to#themselves#to#avoid#being#overwhelmed#by#it#

o Researchers#support#this#more#than#the#idea#that#living#in#cities#make#people#less#altruistic#by#nature#

RESIDENTIAL#MOBILITY

• People#who#have#lived#for#a#long#time#in#one#place#are#more#likely#to#engage#in#prosocial#behaviors#that#help#the#community#

o Greater#attachment#to#the#community

o More#interdependence#with#one’s#neighbors

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o Greater#concern#with#one’s#reputation#

• Study:#people#in#the#“stable#community”#condition#were#more#likely#to#help#their#struggling#companion#than#were#people#in#

the#“transient”#group#condition#(kept#switching#groups#after#every#task)

THE#NUMBER#OF#BYSTANDERS:#THE#BYSTANDER#EFFECT

• Bystander#effect – the#finding#that#the#greater#the#number#of#bystanders#who#witness#an#emergency,#the#less#likely#any#one#

of#them#is#to#help

o Study:#The#Presence#of#Bystanders#Reduces#Helping

! When#people#believed#they#were#the#only one#witnessing#a#student#having#a#seizure,#when#they#were#the#

lone#bystander,#most#of#them#helped#him#immediately,#and#all#did#so#within#a#few#minutes.#When#they#

believed#that#someone#else#was#listening#as#well#(2#bystanders),#they#were#less#likely#to#help#and#did#so#

more#slowly.#And#when#they#believed#that#4#others#were#listening#(5#bystanders),#they#were#even#less#

likely#to#help.#

• Latané#and#Darley:#fiveSstep#description#of#how#people#decided#whether#to#intervene#in#an#emergency#

o Noticing#an#event#

! Fail#to#notice#if:#distracted,#in#a#hurry

! Study:#Seminary#students#in#a#hurry#were#unlikely#to#help#a#guy#lying#unconscious#on#the#ground,#even#if#

they#were#very#religious#and#about#to#give#a#speech#about#the#Good#Samaritan#(compared#to#jobs)

o Interpreting#the#event#as#an#emergency##

! Pluralistic#ignorance – the#case#in#which#people#think#that#everyone#else#is#interpreting#a#situation#in#a#

certain#way,#when#in#fact#they#are#not

• When#an#emergency#occurs,#bystanders#often#assume#nothing#is#wrong#because#no#one#else#

looks#concerned#– even#though#everyone#is#worried#and#concerned

• Emergencies#are#ambiguous,#so#we#follow#informational#social#influence#and#look#for#the#people#

around#us#for#answers

! Latané#and#Darley#study:#smoke#in#the#room#while#participants#are#taking#a#questionnaire#

• The#bigger#the#group,#the#less#likely#people#were#to#report#the#smoke#to#researchers

o Assuming#responsibility

! Diffusion#of#responsibility – the#phenomenon#wherein#each#bystander’s#sense#of#responsibility#to#help#

decreases#as#the#number#of#witnesses#decreases#

• Because#other#people#are#present,#no#single#bystander#feels#a#strong#personal#responsibility#to#

act…#Why#risk#the#cost#when#many#other#people#who#can#help#are#present?

o Knowing#how#to#help

o Deciding#to#implement#the#help

! Some#reasons#people might#not#interfere:#might#not#be#qualified#to#help,#make#the#matters#worse,#put#

yourself#at#risk

! When#a#general#request#for#help#is#made,#a#large#group#makes#people#feel#that#they#do#not#have#much#

responsibility#to#respond.#When#addressed#by#name,#people are#more#likely#to#feel#a#responsibility#to#

help,#even#when#many#others#are#present.#

! Simply#imagining#ourselves#in#a#group#is#enough#to#make#us#feel#less#responsible#for#helping#others!

THE#NATURE#OF#THE#RELATIONSHIP:#COMMUNAL#vs.#EXCHANGE#RELATIONSHIPS

• Communal#relationships – those#in#which#people’s#primary#concern#is#the#welfare#of#another#person#

o Concerned#less#with#the#benefits#they#receive#by#helping#and#more#with#simply#satisfying#the#needs#of#the#other#

person#

o E.g.#childSparent#relationships

o In#general#we#are#more#likely#to#help#friends#compared#to#strangers,#and#a#communal#partner#compared#to#an#

exchange#partner

! Exception:#We#are#less#likely#to#help#a#friend#in#important#areas#than#in#areas#that#we#don’t#care#about#

(e.g.#Not#willing#to#lend#friend notes#for#a#preSmed#course#if#the#most#important#thing#for#you#is#to#

become#a#doctor)

• Exchange#relationships – governed#by#concerns#about#equity#(that#what#you#put#into#the#relationship#equals#what#you#get#

out#of#it)

EFFECTS#OF#THE#MEDIA:#VIDEO#GAMES#AND#MUSIC#LYRICS

• Study:#Playing#a#prosocial#video#game#increased#the#likelihood#that#people#helped#in#situations#(e.g.#help#experimenter#

when#he#dropped#pen,#volunteer#in#more#unpaid#experiments,#help#an#experimenter#being#harassed#by#ex)

o Increases#people’s#empathy#toward#someone#in#need#of#help

o Increases#the#accessibility#of#thoughts#about#helping#others

• Listening#to#songs#with#prosocial#lyrics#also#makes#people#more#helpful

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